Some little questions of political social scnence Assignment

Some little questions of political social scnence - Assignment Example If there is inequality between the identical workers, this means that those working in unions are more skilled which increases inequality because these workers are more knowledgeable than the non-union workers. The strong relationship between unions and inequality attracts great interests and analysts struggles to illustrate increase in labor inequality in most industrialized countries. This has been a great challenge in countries that experiences high levels of geographical mobility, with rate of competitive labor markets. Mobility is measured in terms of income earned and the rate of employment. When the low income earners search for new employment opportunities, this increases the level of labor mobility, and on the other hand, when the unemployment rate is high, this increases geographical mobility. Externalities are common aspects in almost every field of economic activity. They are referred as third party effects emanating from the manufacturing of goods and services without any suitable compensation considered. When there is negative production, the marginal social cost exceeds the private marginal cost as illustrated by the diagram below. In other aspects, externalities may result to market failure. In illustrating this, we assume that if a manufacturer is only interested in maximizing profits, then they only account for private costs and private benefits that arise from the product supplies. The diagram below illustrates that the level of profit maximization is at Q1. On the other hand, the social optimum output level is at Q2. Unionization causes a significant change in the market besides its great influence on remunerations and employment. Labor unions prohibit employers from negotiating with employees that are unionized. Registered Unions act as collective bargaining representatives for employees. However, these trade unions may cause labour market failure, since they aim at enhancing the wage rates for the workers.

The Cold War and U.S. Diplomacy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Cold War and U.S. Diplomacy - Assignment Example This era of panic is termed as the Cold War. This paper is all about the famous President Truman and the declaration he made at this point in time. A situation that required US diplomatic efforts during President Truman’s time was when he tried to formulate a forum instead of the futile League of Nations. The new venture, United Nations Organization, aimed at dissolving the differences between nations without allowing them to lead to devastating wars. As the legacy of the League of Nations was criticized, the formation of a powerful and unbiased agency was a herculean task. Undoubtedly, its main intention was to gain a significant role for Americans in the international life, and he succeeded in its making to a great extent. However, there were a number of roadblocks amidst. The major barrier to the formation of the UN came from the Soviet Union as they were reluctant to join it. At this juncture, ( ac cited in American president: A reference resource),Truman managed to ensure their participation in the founding conference of United Nations Organization in San Francisco by sending a special emissary Harry Hopkins to Moscow. However, the San Francisco Conference ended in June 1945 after most of its participating nations, including the Soviet Union, signed the founding U.N. Charter. If Truman had not intervened with his diplomacy, the formation of UN would have been delayed (American president: A reference resource). The diplomatic doctrine that Mr. President followed was that United States would provide political, economic, and military service to all democratic nations which were under the threat of external or internal authoritarian forces. Evidently, the president indirectly mentioned the threat of communist countries especially from the Soviet Union to the democratic and capitalist countries in the Eastern Europe. He made this doctrine lucid in a speech delivered before the joint session of Congress on March 12, 1947. The immediate reason for this spe ech was the declaration by the British government that it would no longer help the Greek government in its civil war against the Greek communist party by providing military and economic assistance. In his speech, Truman urged the Congress to support the Greek government against the communists. For, the US believed that Soviet Union had been supporting the Greek communist party, and unfortunately if the communist party won the war, the Soviet Union would ultimately influence the policies of the Greek. America never wanted the communist party to flourish posing a threat to capitalism and imperialism. Truman (as cited in The Truman doctrine 1947) believed that proliferation of communist party will be a serious threat to the US; and as the relationship between the US and Soviet Union had been worsening, America viewed the Soviet intervention in Greek and Turkish affairs with suspicion. The withdrawal of Britain from providing assistance to Greece made the declaration of Truman’s diplomatic doctrine imminent. To many, Truman’s doctrine may seem wise political manipulation to keep U.S. rivals far off. But to some extent, it could put forth some effects on the US and other countries as well. One of the major demerits of the communist form of government that the world witnessed was that the rulers went totalitarians once they got into power.

What Is Green Diesel Environmental Sciences Essay

What Is Green Diesel Environmental Sciences Essay Green Diesel, often called renewable diesel or second generation diesel, refers to petrodiesel-like fuels derived from biological sources fuels derived from biological resources (bio-resources) that are chemically not esters and thus distinct from biodiesel. The green diesel is chemically same as petrodiesel but it is made from bio-resources. Bio-resources refers to the living things (plants, animals, and others aspects of nature). It is important to society for the various services they provide, as well as problems they may create. Biological resources are grouped into those that affect agriculture, such as cultivated plants, pollinators, and pests those that are sources of scientific inputs, such as agricultural plant varieties that provide genetic resources and those that provide natural goods and services, such as wildlife, fish, and scenic beauty. Traditional measures of agricultural productivity do not capture all the benefits of preserving biological resources on private lands . Because of this, private landowners may not have adequate incentives to consider the full range of goods and services produced by the biological resources under their control. Since green diesel is produced by bio-resources, thus it is the eco-friendly and sustainable sources of fuel for vehicles. Green diesel blends follow the same nomenclature as biodiesel. Green diesel in its pure form is designated R100 while a blend comprised of 20% green diesel and 80% petrodiesel is called R20. Because green diesel is chemically the same as petrodiesel, it can be mixed with petrodiesel in any proportion but users may need to add an additive to address lubricity issue associated with compounds with no oxygen. The characteristic of green diesel compared with other fuel are shown below: Biodiesel Diesel Oxygen, % 0 11 0 Specific gravity 0.78 0.88 0.84 Sulphur, ppm Heating value, à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ °C 44 38 43 Cloud point, à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ °C -20 to 20 -5 to 15 -5 Cetane 70-90 50-65 40 Table 1.1(1) : Characteristics of Green Diesel compared with other fuel. Green diesel can be made from the same feedstock as biodiesel since both are required the tricylglycerol containing material from bio-resources. Figure 1.1(1) : Brief Renewable Fuel Creation Process Pathway However the terms green diesels have been further distinguished based on the processing method to create the fuel. The primary differences between green diesel and biodiesel are the technologies used to make the fuel and the molecules that are ultimately produced. Whereas, biodiesel is made using a chemical reaction called transesterfication. There are three different processes for creating green diesel, hydrotreating, thermal depolymerisztion, and biomass-to-liquid (BTL). Green diesel blends follow the same nomenclature as biodiesel. Green diesel in its pure form is designated R100 while a blend comprised of 20% green diesel and 80% petrodiesel is called R20. Because green diesel is chemically the same as petrodiesel, it can be mixed with petrodiesel in any proportion but users may need to add an additive to address lubricity issue associated with compounds with no oxygen. The differences between green diesel and biodiesel are shown below: Green Diesel Biodiesel Pure hydrocarbon Oxygenated hydrocarbon Production process: Hydrotreating Thermal depolymerisation Biomass-to liquid (BTL) Production process: Tranesterfication Chemically same with petrodiesel Chemically different than petrodiesel. Table 1.1(2): Comparison of Green Diesel and Bio-diesel The hydrotreating process is a process utilized by petroleum refineries today to remove contaminants such as sulphur, nitrogen, condensed ring aromatics, or metals. 1.1.2 Importance of Green Diesel from Malaysia Chemical Industry Point of View Diesel oil has good commercial value as it serve many purposes. It has many functions as below: To move the heavy road vehicles such as buses, lorries and trucks. To move motors and cars For overland shipping To move military vehicles, such as tanks Can be used in the water transportation as an alternative energy sources to move engines such as in the ships, boats and yacht As electricity backup energy sources Power generation Construction and farming equipment Removal of tar from bitumen burns They derived the diesel from crude oil, which is called petrodiesel. With sharply rising use of non-renewable feedstock (crude oil) to derive diesel has a significant impact on the production of biofuels based on the conventional method. A projected future shortage of crude oil coupled with the growing worldwide demand for transportation fuels has raised the interest in the green diesel, which chemically has the same properties as the petrodiesel but with better cetane number, which mean reduce the emission of CO2 and NOx, emission, and thus brings significant improvement on greenhouse effect, global warming and pollutions. Figure 1.1(2): Current and Future Trend of Production for Petroleum For recent studies and development of technologies show that the production of green diesel can be competitive or cost less than petroleum fuels; yield more oil per hectare of land; sequester CO2 from the flue gases emitted from fossil fuel power plants or other resources; able to similar or even outstanding performance than petroleum fuels; improvement of cold flow properties so that it cause least problem to use during winter. The advantages of green diesel compared with others type of diesel can be summarised as below: Green diesel does appear to have many advantages over the other bio-based diesels. Some of these potential advantages are summarized below: The process utilizes existing refining operations thereby eliminating the need for the immense capital investment required in the United States to produce a significant amount of biodiesel capable of truly displacing significant amounts of petroleum diesel. The fuel is produced by refineries with a long track record of safely producing high grade products thereby eliminating the uncertainty of a fuel produced by a large number of independent producers with limited experience in fuels production. The producers can utilize existing transportation and storage capacity (pipelines, tankage, trucks, etc.) thus eliminating the need for establishing a separate system. It should be noted that due to the detergent character of biodiesel, it cannot be transported or stored in existing petroleum facilities. This industry places production of a fuel in the hands of companies with significant experience with the marketing and distribution of fuel products. The process utilizes a high portion of the lipids, such as the glycerin conversion to propane. Currently green diesel appears to have similar processing cost as biodiesel. The resulting fuel appears to have more stable fluid and burn properties at low temperatures Malaysia also has her own biofuel policy. The government has announced the introduction of a National Biofuel Policy on 10 August 2005. The policy is primarily aimed at reducing the countrys fuel import bill, promoting further the demand for palm oil which will be the primary commodity for biofuel production (alongside regular diesel). One of the four strategies in Malaysias National Biofuel Policy is to encourage the use of biofuel among the public, which will involve giving out incentives for oil retail companies to provide biodiesel pumps at stations [6]. From this policy, we can conclude that our country started to pay attention to biofuels. However, with the green diesel stands out to be having more advantages than bio-diesel, the forecast of green diesel in Malaysia would be off the bright one. With all the bio-resources readily available as feedstock in the production of green diesel, definitely green diesel will be one of the most potential alternative energies utilized in the land of Malaysia. 1.1.3 The World Green Diesel Production Plants Green diesel is a new breed of fats-and-oils based renewable diesel is now increasing its presence in the global biofuels market as major players stared up new production facilities this year. Efforts are being made all over the world to replace fossil fuel. We are belatedly realized that non-renewable energy is causing us serious problems and that is the main cause to develop more alternative energy resources. Green diesel can be produced either by hydrotreating process, BTL reaction or thermal depolymerization processes. Its chemical properties are identical to petroleum diesel as compared with bio-diesel. The demand of green diesel is so much interesting but also challenging. In Malaysia, the usage of green diesel is not much significant. But, recently, there is new renewable energy pilot plant being launched by Saham Utama Sdn. Bhd. in Sungai Batu Pahat near Kangar, Perlis. The diesel is made from solid waste plastic. This can reduce the amount of plastic wastes, thereby helping to combat the effect of global warming. They have claimed that the added features would be installed to transform plastic bottles into diesel fuel. The goal is to convert any domestic waste including organic waste and liquid into commercial fuels. The engineering method used could be thermal depolymerization which similar to cracking of crude oil. In Asia, the most nearest country which recently alert about these efforts is Singapore. In November 2010, Finland-based Neste Oil started the world largest renewable diesel plant in Singapore, with a total capacity of 725 760 tonnes per year. The diesel produced is known as NExBTL, a premium-quality product with complex production technology and also more expensive than bio-diesel. It is produced by hydrotreating of the feedstock. The byproducts of the process are bio-gasoline, biogas and water. The feedstock being used is palm oil. However, Neste Oils NExBTL can also use rapeseed oil and waste animal fat from food industry. This make the technology becomes more flexible due to availability of feedstocks in the future. Neste Oil also has an intensive research on new materials for future needs. In Europe, the renewable diesel is experiencing oversupply and Neste Oil exacerbate their plant at Rotterdam in 2011. The renewable plants also could be exacerbated rising fats and oil prices because of the feedstock demand including in US. Researchers claimed that the global renewable diesel capacity totals about 665 million gallon per year today and this will grow up to 2.5 billion gallon per year in 2015, a 33% annual growth. Below is the summary list of companies that produce green diesel (worldwide): Technology Feedstock Product Commercial Entity Commercial Status Outstanding Commercial Issues Hydrotreating Animal fats or vegetable oils co-processed with petroleum diesel Hydrocarbon mixture- meets ASTM D975 Conoco Philips/ Tyson Ireland refinery producing since Dec. 2006. US announced production of 175 million gals/year expected by 2009 EPA registration Toxicity and biodegradability Hydrocarbon mixture- meets national fuel quality standards in Australia BP Australian refinery producing 5% renewable blend Animal fats/ vegetable oils Hydrocarbon mixture- meets ASTM D975 Neste oil First plant in Finland with capacity of 58 million gals/year The largest plant available in Singapore with production of 0.8 million tons/year Also located in US and Netherlands EPA registration Toxicity and biodegradability Marketplace use Hydrocarbon mixture Petrobras (Brazil, H-Bio Technology) Begin at several refineries since end of 2007 Animal fats Hydrocarbon mixture Dynamic fuels (Syntroleum/Tyson) Commercial pilot started I n 2008 Production start in 2010 Standard development EPA registration Economics Life-cycle analysis Toxicity and biodegradability Vegetable oils UOP Technology Plant constructed in 2009 Production of 95 million gals/year Biomass-to-Liquid (BTL) via gasification or Fischer-Trophs Biomass Hydrocarbon mixture JV with Choren/ Daimler-Chrysler/VW Pilot plant opened in 2007 Production 0f 4.7 million gals/year Standard development EPA registration Economics Life-cycle analysis Toxicity and biodegradability Neste Oil/ Stora Enso Pre-commercialization Syntroleum Pyrolysis-Rapid Thermal Processing Biomass, municipal and industrial waste Hydrocarbon mixture In research stage In research stage Standard development EPA registration Economics Life-cycle analysis Toxicity and biodegradability Slaughterhouse waste (animal waste), carbon containing waste Hydrocarbon mixture- meets ASTM D396, can be refined to ASTM D975 Changing World Technologies Commercial pilot plant in Missouri Production of 250 000 gals/moles of slaughterhouse waste Marketplace use Table 1.1(3): Summary list of companies in worldwide that produce green diesel 1.1.4 Emerging Energy Demands for next 10 years Malaysia is currently in the midst of rapid development. One significant sign of rapid development is the increasing trending of energy demands in the future. Not only in Malaysia, the global energy landscape is changing tremendously, but most of it is showing an upward trend. Global energy demands will be about 30 percent higher in 2040 compared to 2010, as economic output more than doubles and prosperity expands across a world whose population will grow by more than 25 percent, reaching to nearly 9 billion people. [1] Global demand for the least carbon-intensive fuels natural gas, nuclear and renewables will rise at a faster-than-average rate. C:UsersDellDesktopDesignfuture trendCapture8.PNG Figure 1.1(3): Global energy demand increases by one-third from 2010 to 2035, with China and India accounting for 50 percent of the growth in the New Policies Scenario [2] In the above graph, the main growth of energy demands more significant in China and Asia due to the increasing population and fast-paced development of the countries. Malaysia falls under the category of Other developing Asia. Similarly it also shows an incline trend due to the rapid development of industrial and economic activities in Malaysia. In order to cope with the high rising of energy, various energy policies and plan were carried out by the government. Go Green is one of the most popular concept practice in the world wide, and the term renewable and sustainable is now related to oil and gas by having renewable diesel (green diesel). Many countries in the world often started on the production of green diesel using various types of technologies such as hydro-treating or thermal depolymerisation. C:UsersDellDesktopCapture.PNG Figure 1.1(4): United State production of petroleum and other liquids by source, 2010-2035 (millions barrels per day) [3] By referring to the graph above, the total production of petroleum and other liquids grows rapidly, from 9.7 million barrels per day in 2010 to 12.1 million barrels per day in 2020. Focusing on renewable sources, prediction shows that the biofuel productions grows by 0.8 million barrels per day from 2010 to 2035 as a result of the EISA2007 RFS (Renewable Fuel Standard Program), with ethanol and biodiesel accounting for 0.7 and 0.1 billion barrels per day, respectively, of the increase in the Reference case. [3] In addition, incline trending of next-generation xTL production (including both biomass-to-liquids and CTL) contributes greatly to the growth in total production of petroleum and other liquids in U.S., especially significant after the year 2020. The significant growth of BTL reflects a good potential in the future market, and yet it is a convincing and promising source of renewable diesel. Not only on the growing capacity of green diesel production giving hopes to mankind, the continuous researches done by scientists also bring upon the increasing quality of green diesel. Before that, economic crisis and technological hurdles delay the start of numerous researches and projects on advanced biofuels, especially on cellulosic biofuel projects. However in the futures, it is expected that, EPA (Environment Protection Agency) will year-to-year evaluate the status of biofuel capacity and also revise on the production mandates for the following year. By the continuous efforts from researchers, it is foresee that BTL will reach the EISA2007 Renewable Fuel Standard after 2030. This providing a better quality or standard of green diesel produced. C:UsersDellDesktopCapture2.PNG Figure 1.1(5): EISA2007 Renewable Fuel Standard credits earned in selected years, 2010-2035 (billion credits) [3] However in Malaysia, a sad scenario is that the production of green diesel still in an infant stage. Researches and developments in experimental scales had been carried out so far, but still the production in large industrial scale is still underdeveloped. By taking reference of the forecast on oil and gas field in U.S., rough estimation on the future hope of green diesel production in Malaysia for the next 10 years can be done. The potential of green diesel in the future 10 years of view in Malaysia is consider as a bright one, and to be believed that it will slowly increasing in demands over the next 10 years. Green diesel production in Malaysia is what we are looking for in the future. Scientists and fuel specialists optimistically believe that green or renewable diesel will be one of the future trends in oil and gas production, not only in Malaysia but also in the nationwide. 1.2 PROCESS ALTERNATIVE Green diesel is being highly looked up to as one of the great hope, with its similar chemical properties similar to diesel. New ways and technologies for improvement in green diesel production are improved as time go by. Of these, three processes of green diesel production will be suggested and discussed from different aspects. 1.2.1 Production of green diesel via biomass to liquid technology and Fisher-Tropsch Process One of the alternative processes is to produce green diesel is by using Fischer-Tropsch process. It is basically a patent to produce liquid hydrocarbons from mixture of syngas, carbon monoxide gas and hydrogen using metal and cobalt catalysts. The liquid hydrocarbon mentioned here is referred to the paraffin. Normally right before the Fischer-Tropsch process is a series of gasification process of feedstock, to convert the biomass into the biogas that can be utilized to become liquid hydrocarbons, the green diesel. Let us take a look at the gasification of biomass to syngas. The biomass may undergo low temperature gasification (800 1000  °C) to produce product gas which later on converted to bio-syngas through reforming and tar cracking steps. On the other hand, the product gas (CO, H2, CH4, CxHy) may be used to generate electricity. When the organic material inside the biomass burned, it may undergo complete combustion to produce carbon dioxide and water, or it may undergo partial combustion to carbon monoxide and hydrogen. What we need for the feeds of the Fischer-Tropsch process is the carbon monoxide and hydrogen and it can be achieved by control the amount of oxygen during combustion process (gasification). Several reactions are used to control the H2/CO ratio. Most important one is water gas shift reactions, in which the water is reacted with carbon monoxide to produce sources of hydrogen that needed in the Fischer-Tropsch process. The chemical reaction of the Fischer-Tropsch process i s shown as below: http://www.fischer-tropsch.org/primary_documents/presentations/acs2001_chicago/slide03.gif Figure 1.2(1): Fischer-Tropsch Process [1] For the Fischer-Tropsch Reaction, it is normally operated with temperature range of 150 300 °C. Higher temperature will have high rate of conversion but also lead to the production of methane. Thus, the temperature is always maintained at low to middle temperature in order to remain yield of the green diesel. On the other hand, the pressure of the process is ranging from one to several tens atmospheric pressure. Higher pressure will help the reaction faster but also required more costs of operations such as high pressure equipment. We also need to know that too high pressure also can cause the metal or cobalt catalysts that used in the reaction to deactivate due to coke formation. A variety of catalysts can be used for the process such as iron, ruthenium and cobalt, depending on the aims of the operations. Figure 1.2(2): A simple concept on Fischer-Tropsch Reaction Green Chemistry and Sustainability In term of green chemistry, the use of renewable feedstock such as biomass is a sustainable way to overcome the depletion of crude oil. Biomass can be easily obtained from animal fats, agricultural wastes, soybean, woods, etc. The green diesel produced is ultralow sulfur content and the properties of the green diesel produced is very chemically similar with petrodiesel but better than it. The emission of the hazardous pollutant such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide is also 60-70% lesser. Besides that, the product off-gas produced from the process can be used in two ways; 1) addition recovery process to recover the chemicals from the byproducts and export them to other company, or 2) generate electricity which is sufficient to supply for some operations in within the plants. Environmental Impact Fischer-Tropsch process basically produces ultra clean green diesel which help in reduce the environmental issue such as global warming, greenhouse effect by reduce the emission of carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide. It seems to be a great potential of alternatives to the non-renewable energy resources, the crude oil. The side products here are actually light products and also heavy products like waxes which also have high market demand and can be exported out along with the green diesel. Flexibility of Operation The production line is actually not only produce green diesel but also heavy products like waxes and also gasoline. By adjusting the operation condition, we may adjust the need to favor the production of desired products There are two favored reactor types which can be chosen depends on the operator; Multitubular fixed bed reactor with internal cooling and also slurry bubble column reactor with internal cooling tubes. The process not only limited to the oil as feedstock but also may use the renewable feedstock such as biomass and animal fats. Energy Consumption The energy consumption of this technology is mostly depends on the gasification process whereby it consumed 60-70% of the energy of the whole plant. For high temperature mode (HTFT), the operating temperature is between 300 and 350 °C while operating pressure can be ranging from one to several tens of atmospheric pressure. On the other hand, for low temperature mode (LTFT), the operating temperature is between 200 and 240  °C with operating pressure of 1 to 10atm. Advantages No nitrogenous, sulfur compounds formed during the reaction High cetane number can be obtained (75 90% higher than that required for petrochemical derived diesel fuel) Carbon neutral process Products off-gas can be used to generate electricity which enough for the operation of the plant. Disadvantages FT process is very complex in its reaction mechanism and several studies need to be carry out to maximize the productivity of green diesel from the process Large number of species involved in the reaction and extra care is needed in the plant design The present catalyst is not good enough to maximize the yield of the green diesel Extra process needed to convert the waxes formed from the FT process into green diesel (which mean extra cost!) The cost of green diesel produced from the process may be more expensive than the diesel produced from the crude oil Table 1.2 (1): Key Components of Fischer-Tropsch Reaction 1.2.2 Production of green diesel via Thermal Depolymerisation Process Thermal depolymerisation (TDP) is an industrial process that able to break down and convert various type of biomass or other carbon-containing material into a bio-oil product that is then refined into a petrodiesel-like fuel. Thermal depolymerisation involves a depolymerisation process using hydrous pyrolysis for the reduction of complex organic materials (usually waste products of various sorts, often biomass and plastic) into light crude oil. The process is found to be similar to the natural geological processes thought to be involved in the production of fossil fuels. Long chain polymers of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon decompose into short-chain petroleum hydrocarbons with a maximum length of around 18 carbons under the application of heat and pressure. [1] The list of TDP suitable feedstocks are extensive and flexible, including waste plastic, tires, wood pulp, medical waste, and rather unsavoury byproducts such as turkey offal and sewerage sludge. Changing World Technologies (CWT) are currently utilizing this method to process slaughterhouse waste and other carbon containing solid waste to create a fuel that can meet the standards of both ASTM D396 and ASTM D975. [2] c:usersdelldesktopdesigntdtcp.gif Figure 1.2(3): Thermal depolymerisation process to produce renewable diesel. In the method used by CWT, the water improves the heating process and contributes hydrogen to the reactions. The feedstock material is first break down into small chunks, and mixed with water (if it is dry). Then it is fed into a pressure vessel reaction chamber, heated to around 250  °C at constant volume (similar principal to a pressure cooker). Steam naturally raises the pressure to 4 MPa (near the point of saturated water) and is held for approximately 15 minutes to heat the mixture completely. After this, the pressure is rapidly released to flash off most of the water content in the feedstock, resulting a mixture of crude hydrocarbons and solid minerals. The minerals are later removed, and the hydrocarbons are channel to a second-stage reactor to heat up to 500  °C in order to further breaking down the longer hydrocarbon chains. The hydrocarbons are then sorted by fractional distillation, in a process similar to conventional oil refining. CWT claims that 15 to 20% of feedstock energy is used to provide energy for the plant. The remaining energy is available in the converted product. Working with turkey offal as the feedstock, the process proved to have yield efficiencies of approximately 85%; in other words, the energy contained in the end products of the process is 85% of the energy contained in the inputs to the process (most notably the energy content of the feedstock, but also including electricity for pumps and natural gas or woodgas for heating). The process breaks down almost all materials that are fed into it. TDP even efficiently breaks down many types of hazardous materials, such as poisons and difficult-to-destroy biological agents such as prions. The light hydrocarbons that are produced by TDP can be used fuel sources, filters and fertilizers. It can be used a s a substitute for coal and also in quelling the alarming rise of carbon dioxide concentration in the air. CO2 is one of the chief greenhouse gases that are responsible for global warming. Green Chemistry and Sustainability The best part of using thermal depolymerisation (TDP) is that, it can break down substances such as plastic which takes long time to decompose. By using TDP, renewable diesel can be produce from plastic, not only save up waste to be buried, but also getting useful green diesel out of unwanted waste. Methane in the feedstock is recovered and burned to heat the water, or burned in a combined heat and power plant to sell back electricity to the power grid Environmental Impact Emission of foul odors and unpleasant smell to the surrounding area of operating factory, causing nausea and uncomfortable feeling to resident nearby Flexibility of Operation Extensive and flexible choice of feedstocks (waste plastic, tires, wood pulp, medical waste, and unsavory byproducts such as turkey offal and sewerage sludge) Energy Consumption Require high energy consumption. High energy input requirements to produce green diesel made it not favorable among industry. Safety Factor and Waste Management Methane gas produce can be treated by burning to heat up water to produce electricity. The process not only cleans up wastes but also generate new sources of energy. Advantages Able to break down strong chemical bonds of organic poison, making huge benefits to ecosystem balance. Safely deal on heavy metals by converting them into stable oxides of their original ionized forms. Recycling the energy content of organic products while retaining the water content. (avoid drying while producing liquid fuel that separates from water in thermal depolymerisation, energy saving). The vast bulk of waste content can be utilized to produce green diesel. Not only make good use of all the non-bio-degradable waste but also help in producing useful oil. [3] The light hydrocarbons produced can be used fuel sources, filters and fertilizers. Disadvantages Only long molecular chains compound can be broken into shorter ones, so small molecules such as carbon dioxide or methane cannot be converted to oil If taking biomass as the feedstock, most of the biomass is already being used as animal feed or fertilizers and so are not really available in plenty for TDP High processing costs, low yield, impurity of yield, high energy input requirements making the process not feasible and viable for large scale production. Table 1.2(2): Key Components of Thermal Depolymerisation Reaction 1.2.3 Production of green diesel via Hydrotreating Process Production of renewable energy is expanding at rapid pace worldwide. This phenomenon gives increasing petroleum prices, government regulation and commitment in reducing greenhouse gases. In future, renewable dependent could be increasing as a new technology in producing high quality of renewable energy was invented. These new renewable diesel should be compatible to substitute conventional diesel for transportation. One of the available production processes of green diesel is hydrotreating

Frankenstein is Not a Natural Philosopher Essay examples -- Shelley Fr

Smith’s article ‘Frankenstein and natural magic’ takes a literary approach to the analysis of ‘Frankenstein’ although this is supported by some background scientific knowledge. Through the article, Smith describes the impacts science has made on Frankenstein’s life . Smith plays close attention to Frankenstein’s childhood, where he discovered the ancient philosophers, and his Ingolstadt years. It is in these periods where Smith argues that Frankenstein is not a natural philosopher but a natural magician due to his affinity for the ancient natural sciences, the romantic genius he posses and by contrasting Frankenstein against traditional, enlightenment stereotypes of the natural philosophers within the text and the greater Socio-historical context. However, this is in contrast to the arguments of Sleigh, who by comparing Aldini to Frankenstein, attempts to rationalise his actions and draw parallels with the attitudes of the modern philos ophers. In Sleigh’s ‘Life, Death and Galvanism’ the analysis is significantly more scientific than Smith’s consequently this is done at the expense of true literary discussion and thus only brief passing references are made to Shelly’s ‘Frankenstein’ therefore the reader has to pry out comparisons between Frankenstein and Aldini. The article itself is the story of Aldini and his uses of Galvanism but it also draws on considerable philosophical ideas to analyse the thought process of Aldini. Like Smiths text, the article is chronological and details events from 1808 onwards. Her argument concedes that Aldini and Frankenstein may have had similar attitudes due to the nature of their work, their need for ‘Inspiration and their backgrounds. One could theorise that although Frankenstein shows to be mor... ...in. She argues that they have a similar attitude and their actions are only slightly dissimilar. Nonetheless, one can question the reliability of Aldini as a representative of natural philosophy because of Smith’s focal description of a natural philosopher, thus alerting us to Frankenstein’s incompatibility with the traits given to a natural philosopher. Thereby arguing that Frankenstein was no natural philosopher. Works Cited Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft, and Joseph, M. K, Frankenstein; or The modern Prometheus. London, New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. Sleigh, Charlotte. ‘Life, Death and Galvanism.’ Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and biomedical Sciences 29 (1998): 219-248 Smith, Crosbie. ‘Frankenstein and Natural Magic.’ In Frankesntein:Creation and Monstrosity, edited by Stephen Bann, 35-59. London: Reaktion, 1994. Frankenstein is Not a Natural Philosopher Essay examples -- Shelley Fr Smith’s article ‘Frankenstein and natural magic’ takes a literary approach to the analysis of ‘Frankenstein’ although this is supported by some background scientific knowledge. Through the article, Smith describes the impacts science has made on Frankenstein’s life . Smith plays close attention to Frankenstein’s childhood, where he discovered the ancient philosophers, and his Ingolstadt years. It is in these periods where Smith argues that Frankenstein is not a natural philosopher but a natural magician due to his affinity for the ancient natural sciences, the romantic genius he posses and by contrasting Frankenstein against traditional, enlightenment stereotypes of the natural philosophers within the text and the greater Socio-historical context. However, this is in contrast to the arguments of Sleigh, who by comparing Aldini to Frankenstein, attempts to rationalise his actions and draw parallels with the attitudes of the modern philos ophers. In Sleigh’s ‘Life, Death and Galvanism’ the analysis is significantly more scientific than Smith’s consequently this is done at the expense of true literary discussion and thus only brief passing references are made to Shelly’s ‘Frankenstein’ therefore the reader has to pry out comparisons between Frankenstein and Aldini. The article itself is the story of Aldini and his uses of Galvanism but it also draws on considerable philosophical ideas to analyse the thought process of Aldini. Like Smiths text, the article is chronological and details events from 1808 onwards. Her argument concedes that Aldini and Frankenstein may have had similar attitudes due to the nature of their work, their need for ‘Inspiration and their backgrounds. One could theorise that although Frankenstein shows to be mor... ...in. She argues that they have a similar attitude and their actions are only slightly dissimilar. Nonetheless, one can question the reliability of Aldini as a representative of natural philosophy because of Smith’s focal description of a natural philosopher, thus alerting us to Frankenstein’s incompatibility with the traits given to a natural philosopher. Thereby arguing that Frankenstein was no natural philosopher. Works Cited Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft, and Joseph, M. K, Frankenstein; or The modern Prometheus. London, New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. Sleigh, Charlotte. ‘Life, Death and Galvanism.’ Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and biomedical Sciences 29 (1998): 219-248 Smith, Crosbie. ‘Frankenstein and Natural Magic.’ In Frankesntein:Creation and Monstrosity, edited by Stephen Bann, 35-59. London: Reaktion, 1994.

Comparing and contrasting the poems Essay

The poems ‘Vultures’ by Chinua Achebe and ‘What were they like? ‘ by Denise Levertov are the same in that they both about war and conflict between two different tribes or regions within one country. Both poems reflect the effects of war and how can dramatically change history. Chinua Achebe uses vultures to explore his thought and ideas of war. He starts by introducing us to their foul diet of dead humans and animal flesh, and then they appear to care and love for one another. Achebe feels that people should be hopeful that the goodness and love will one day overcome the evil inside others an that deep down there lies goodness and love in even the worlds most evil people, like Aldolf Hitler for example. Vultures is about the Biafran War in Nigeria which began in 1967 between the Hausan and Yoruban tribes. The poem is also about the concentration camps in Belsen. The theme of the poem is to show a contrast between good and evil. The poet uses metaphoric images of vultures to describe how a person or creature can be horrible and disgusting and do evil, horrific things but somewhere deep down inside there is a tiny speck of goodness and love. ‘Thus the commandant at Belsen Camp going home for the day with fumes of human roast clinging rebelliously to his hairy nostrils will stop at the wayside sweet-shop and pick up a chocolate for his tender offspring’. This stanza is clearly contrasts good and evil. A tremendously evil man who spends his days slaughtering innocent families will go home to his family with goodies for his children and where he is a completely different person, a caring father and a loving husband. The theme is similar to that in the poem ‘What were they like? ‘ The US Forces killed many innocent men, women and children and caused devastating affects to the countries land and lives of millions in order to win a war. Only when they realised the terror they had caused and that it was too late, they withdrew they part in the war returned home to they families to live happily ever after. Although the themes of the poems are practically the same each poet delivers their point in different ways and also describes different aspects of war. Chinua Achebe choose to describe war from the side of the commanders and soldiers and Denise Levertov choose to describe war from the side of the countries people and how war effected them. The meaning of each poem lives up to the titles. By reading the title ‘Vultures’ you immediately think of the scavenger creature. And ‘What they were like?’ a phrase like this will be used to describe how something or someone was meaning they are no longer like that. In the poem ‘they’ are no longer the way they were because ‘they’ have been killed and forgotten about, ‘they’ meaning the peasant of Vietnam during the war. Denise Levertov uses the word ‘Sir’ more than once. I think she choose to use this word to show how soldiers would address their commanders. Denise Levertov uses a unique structure for the poem. She uses a sequence of numbered questions followed by the answers. The questions are to the point and reflect the innocent lives of the poor peasants living in Vietnam at the time of the war. Chinua Achebe’s poem seems to be set out in four verses but actually it is two. The verses are separated by the word ‘Strange’. Between lines 21-40 Achebe uses emphasis (†¦ ) to show that it’s continuing but then he moves the subject to show there’s something missing. Like this phrase ‘in easy range of cold telescopic eyes†¦ Strange indeed how love in the other ways so particular’, he seems to be observing the animals from a distance. At first he has just finished describing the nasty side of the creature then it’s as if his is interrupted by what we see as strange behaviour for a vulture, where they show each other love. Denise Levertov wanted to put across the fact that no justice was bought to those who lost their lives due to war, instead they were silenced; she felt very strongly about this a put her view down very straight forward. Her questions are to the point but the questions are a bit vague, they have a deeper mean than they appear. In Levertov’s poem she says ‘their singing resembled the flight of moths in the moonlight. Who can I say? It is silent now’. This reflects how people especially the men who caused the suffering, would rather forget the horrendous images of dying innocence and pretend it never happened. For example, ‘Sir, their light hearts turned to stone. It is not remembered whether in gardens stone lanterns illumined pleasant ways ‘ this means that it is not remembered because when the land was bombed the people and land was burnt down to nothing. The poems appear on the outside to be about simple ideas but between the lines there are some powerful thoughts. Vultures seem to be about the disgusting creature, Chinua Achebe uses them only to comment of a particular type of people. In what were they like? It seems to be only about individuals-the peasants but it’s really about big political events. Vultures symbolises people who benefit from others who are suffering and again this also contrasts with the Northern Communists in Vietnam who won a brutal war at the expense of innocent people.

Phenomenology of Love Essay

Love is something that means very different things to different people. For some, love can be purely romantic, or even purely sexual. For others, real love is utterly unconditional and only truly exists between family members, or between people and a deity. And for some people, love is fluid, ever changing, and everywhere, and is felt for family, friends, partners, pets, and even inanimate objects, dead artists, and fictional characters. None of these people would be right or wrong, but one thing is certain: love is the most powerful force in the entire universe. Between partners of any description, be they married or, boyfriend and girlfriend, straight or gay, young or old, love is a relationship of mutual understanding and respect. Marriages and partnerships are often built on common ground that people find when they first meet; this can be as deep as sharing religious, philosophical or religious beliefs, or as simple as finding that you love the same film, book, or band. This kind of love is often reliant on some kind of ‘chemistry’: that strange feeling that they give you in the pit of your stomach, and the feeling that nothing in the world is more important to you than enjoying the moment you’re in together. Some people feel that they experience love at first sight, where they know from the minute they set eyes on each other that they want to be with that person, but something built on common interests and understanding must be stronger. It is the strength of this feeling that makes love the most powerful emotion that most of us will ever experience. People can do some dreadful things out of hate and fear, but love can push us to do much, much worse. And it is often love that can cause us to hate, whether it’s out of jealousy, or anger because our loved one has been hurt. Love, ultimately, is a sacrifice, whatever the relationship, and it must be the most powerful force in the universe because as human beings, we make tru e sacrifices for nothing less. Love is a very special and meaningful word to each human being. Read more:  Example of Persuasive Essay About Love Each human being has his/her own thoughts about love to guide himself/herself to land safely and smoothly into the kingdom of Love. Without this preconceived idea of love, people would be acting like a blind person searching for the light with thousand of obstacles in front. I know this question exists in each human being’s mind including myself. If not it is still waiting to be discovered deeply in your heart. What do I think of love? For me, I believe love is a priceless diamond, because a diamond has thousands of reflections, and each  reflection represents a meaning of love. With love I can accept a person’s imperfections without any condition, and able to transfer the way I love myself to another person who I am fancy at. With love I can have the power against loneliness, sadness, and illness, and to be able to change them into my happiness. As well as, having a key to open my heart to look at this world without a mask, to show people who I really am. But on the other hand, my love cannot be a substitute for anything, which means nothing can be substituted for my love. It also means those reflections of the diamond cannot be replaced by any kind of light or reflection, because the untrue reflection will not be a real diamond, and will not be able to spread out its resplendent and meaningful reflection of love to people about whom I care. Most of us act as though we know what it is without truly understanding its meaning and essence. This has been true of me. Before I encountered this phenomenology of love, I already had experiences of loving other people – my family, my friends, and girlfriends past and present. However, I was belonged to the people whom Erich Fromm described as believing in the popular notion of love. I emphasized the characteristics of the people I loved, why I needed them, and I mostly demanded that they love me more than I demanded myself to love them. My concept love was shallow. Yes, I felt it, but I knew it not. However, all that changed when I came across the phenomenology of love. It was an articulation of fundamental characteristics of love which I knew my heart was saying but my mind was incapable of putting into words. When I was reading the said phenomenology, I constantly had that weird feeling of realizing something and relating to it strongly with past experiences. I strongly agree with it. Indeed, love begins with the experience of loneliness and then grows as someone reaches out lovingly to the other. I also experienced that, but did not know its meaning in relation to the love I had. Indeed, in loving others, I always sought their love too, in the same or in even greater measure than that which I gave them. But I realized with the phenomenology that it is alright to feel that way and wish for the same, but that it should not be the motivation in my loving act. But what struck me the most was the statement that when we â€Å"love† someone without knowing our true worth, we are like making them trash bins to whom we throw ourselves. Because of t his and the entirety of the phenomenology of love, I learned what loving is truly all  about. Indeed, it’s a many-splendored thing.

The Story of Olivia essays

The Story of Olivia essays ï » ¿Olivia is a student at Crenshaw High School, whos only salvation was school. Her mother would constantly beat, whip and scald her with hot water. At the age of twelve, Olivia called a runaway shelter and became a foster child. She was constantly moved from foster home to foster home. To support herself financially, Olivia worked a graveyard hour job where she would wear a little black dress and would talk, dance, and play pool with the customers to make six dollars an hour plus tips. However, despite her graveyard hour job, she still managed to keep up with school and maintain her good grades. Eventually, due to her unprivileged circumstances, her need of money, and desperation Olivia got involved with check fraud and was sentenced to go to a juvenile camp for a year. However, Olivia is a resourceful, and persuasive girl that will find educational success because of her work ethic. Having a rough childhood can emotionally affect one's life. The lack of love from her mother affected Olivia physically and emotionally. Olivia might have developed feelings of insecurity due to her moms inconsistency in her needs as an infant. Maybe this led to her working a graveyard hour job, to feel more secure and help her become independent to be able to provide for herself. Though Olivia's escape from the world she was living in was her school. Olivia has always being considered a gifted student because despite her work hours she still manages to do good in school and not let her life circumstances get in the way. Olivia's environment may also be the cause for her circumstances and life overall. Olivia grew up in South Central, a poor neighborhood that was surrounded by crime. Children that grow up in this type of neighborhoods are influenced to attempt bad behaviors and they may become unmotivated about their education. There is also a higher chance to find unstable families in communities like this because of all the crime and drug...

The study of a panda Essays

The study of a panda Essays The study of a panda Paper The study of a panda Paper The panda is black and white, like a bear in shape, but different. Things to remember in the last hour before the exam: Life processes at the cellular level (This is not a revision sheet youve done that by now Its a list of things you might want to remind yourself about 1. Cell parts. Most structures/organelles common to animal and plant cells. [P] = plants only C] Cytoplasm transparent Jelly ? cells activities occur here CLC Cell/plasma membrane regulates movement of materials in/out of cell. SELECTIVELY permeable. Phosphoric belayed. Phosphate heads (hydrophilic) face inside cell/outside cell. Fatty acid tails of lipids (hydrophobic) to interior. Small molecules e. G. Water diffuse through. Larger ones transported via protein channels. 0 Nucleus cell control centre, controls metabolism via enzymes. Contains genetic info DNA. Chromosomes only visible when cell is dividing. Contains nucleolus makes RNA and ribosome. Cell wall [P] protects cell gives strength and support. Is permeable and made of cellulose. Controls turgidity (can resist high internal pressures without stretching). 0 Chloroplasts [P] site of photosynthesis, contain chlorophyll green light-trapping pigment. Elongated shape maximizes S. A. To volume ratio, Increasing uptake of CO and H2O uptake and output of 02 and glucose (photosynthetic capacity). Chlorophyll molecules embedded In grand (stacks of ethylated membrane) more S. A. More chlorophyll = Max. Amount of light captured = more photosynthesis. Surrounded by stoma enzymes and water. 0 Large (central) vacuole [P] large and permanent structure containing cell sap (salts, sugars, amino acids). Salts in sap produce strong tendency for water to enter cell (by osmosis) keeping cell turgid. Vacuole displaces cytoplasm to edges of cell meaning chloroplasts are close to CO and light. Also short gas diffusion distances. 0 Mitochondria site of aerobic respiration. Enzymes attached to Cristal (membranes folded to Increase the S. A. = greater # of enzymes) produce ATOP (adenosine troposphere). Occur In high numbers In cells with large energy needs e. G. Sperm muscle cells. 0 Googol flat disc shaped sacs modify and package proteins C] ERE: Rough has bound ribosome (site of protein synthesis) makes proteins and transports proteins to Googol. Smooth has free ribosome makes steroids, lipids and hormones 2. Specialized cells perform specialized functions in multicultural organisms. Examples include: 0 Guard cells form stoma (small opening in epidermis) when turgid. Turgid = crescent moon shaped, flaccid = oval shape. Thick inner walls help them open/close stoma. Allow CO and 02 in and out. Also main route of H2O loss via transpiration. Swelling of vacuole controls opening/closing. Contain chloroplasts. 0 Palisade cells long, thin column shaped cells many can fit close together. Contain MANY chloroplasts. Cells arranged vertically so light passes through less cell walls to cells beneath. 0 Spongy mesosphere (beneath palisade layer) has more rounded not so tightly packed cells. Large Intracellular alarm spaces maximizes diffusion rate of gases during photosynthesis. (CO In 02 out). CLC Root hair cells Long and thin extension at one end with thin cell to vastly increase S. A. For absorbing small BIOLOGY Dont forget to throw this away DO NOT take it into the exam by mistake We dont want you disqualified by mistake 3. Movement. Three main mechanisms. Diffusion: Movement of substances from high concentration to low concentration along a concentration gradient which exists until diffused substance is evenly distributed. Passive movement. E. G: CO diffusing in / 02 out of leaf (through tomato). Note: can occur Just in solutions, as well as across membranes. 0 Osmosis: Movement of H2O from high concentration of H2O to a low con. Of H2O water through semi/selectively permeable membrane ( from a more dill. Solution to a more con. Solution). Passive movement. E. G. Absorbing water through plant roots, kidney tubules reabsorbing water. Active transport: Movement from a low con. To a high con. Energy is required. E. G. Absorption of MGM by roots, glucose uptake in intestines. 4. Enzymes. Protein molecules acts as biological catalysts increase rate of reactions. Substrate = molecule the enzyme acts. Increase in substrate concentration = increase in rate up to a maximum. Enzymes are specific have AD shape with unique active site only work on a particular substrate. Function best in particular conditions e. G. An optimum temperature and optimal PH. (function poorly outside these). At very low temperatures, enzyme action slow; as temp. Increases reaction rate increases (more collisions/time) BUT at high temperatures enzyme is denatured (peptide chains unravel active site is lost enzyme is permanently inactive). CIO every ICC rise enzyme activity approve.. Doubles. Co-enzymes complete the active tit essential to enzyme action. Inhibitors (poisons) combine with active site to prevent enzyme function. 5. Photosynthesis. Needs CO via stomata, H2O via roots and xylem, sunlight and chlorophyll. CHIC + AH 0 C6H1206 + 602. Sunlight needed as source of (solar) energy. Rate affected by light: more light = more photosynthesis up to point where plant is at Max. Photosynthesis level any increase in light intensity wont affect the plant further. Rate at midday >early morning [evening. No photosynthesis at night. Rate in summer > winter. Temperature affects rate. 6. (Aerobic) Respiration. C6H1206 602 0 CHIC + AH. Breakdown of glucose occurs in 2 steps glycoside in cytoplasm, then Krebs/citric acid cycle in the matrix of the mitochondria and electron transport system on Cristal of mitochondria. Energy from food (from breakdown of glucose and fatty acids) converts ADAPT + P 0 ATOP. ATOP = the energy carrier / energy in a usable form. ATOP is broken down elsewhere to ADAPT + P releasing useful energy for cellular work. 7. Cell division. 0 A cell cycles between periods of cell division, growth, normal activity (enterprise) and back to division. DNA replication occurs DNA makes exact copy of itself prior to ell division so there is a full set of genetic information available in each cell after division then preparation for mitosis then mitosis. The cycle repeats. DNA contains code for synthesis of proteins in its base sequences. All cells need the code to synthesis essential proteins for the cell to grow and carry out its role. DNA must replicate accurately so all new cells have a complete copy of the code. 0 Key steps. DNA helix unwinds, two strands unzip between bases, new nucleotides Join to the enzymes. Base pairing (A-T and C-G) essential provides mechanism accurately making two identical DNA molecules.

Huáscar and Atahualpa Inca Civil War

Huscar and Atahualpa Inca Civil War From 1527 to 1532, brothers Huscar and Atahualpa fought over the Inca Empire. Their father, Inca Huayna Capac, had allowed each to rule a part of the Empire as regent during his reign: Huscar in Cuzco and Atahualpa in Quito. When Huayna Capac and his heir apparent, Ninan Cuyuchi, died in 1527 (some sources say as early as 1525), Atahualpa and Huscar went to war over who would succeed their father. What neither man knew was that a far greater threat to the Empire was approaching: ruthless Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro. Background of the Inca Civil War In the Inca Empire, the word Inca meant King, as opposed to words like Aztec which referred to a people or culture. Still, Inca is often used as a general term to refer to the ethnic group who lived in the Andes and residents of the Inca Empire in particular. The Inca Emperors were considered to be divine, directly descended from the Sun. Their warlike culture had spread out from the Lake Titicaca area quickly, conquering one tribe and ethnic group after another to build a mighty Empire that spanned from Chile to southern Colombia and included vast swaths of present-day Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia. Because the Royal Inca line was supposedly directly descended from the sun, it was unseemly for the Inca Emperors to marry anyone but their own sisters. Numerous concubines, however, were allowed and the royal Incas tended to have many sons. In terms of succession, any son of an Inca Emperor would do: he did not have to be born to an Inca and his sister, nor did he have to be eldest. Often, brutal civil wars would break out upon the death of an Emperor as his sons fought for his throne: this produced much chaos but did result in a long line of strong, fierce, ruthless Inca lords that made the Empire strong and formidable. This is exactly what happened in 1527. With the powerful Huayna Capac gone, Atahualpa and Huscar apparently tried to rule jointly for a time but were unable to do so and hostilities soon broke out. The War of the Brothers Huscar ruled Cuzco, capital of the Inca Empire. He, therefore, commanded the loyalty of most of the people. Atahualpa, however, had the loyalty of the large Inca professional army and three outstanding generals: Chalcuchima, Quisquis, and Rumià ±ahui. The large army had been in the north near Quito subjugating smaller tribes into the Empire when the war broke out. At first, Huscar made an attempt at capturing Quito, but the mighty army under Quisquis pushed him back. Atahualpa sent Chalcuchima and Quisquis after Cuzco and left Rumià ±ahui in Quito. The Caà ±ari people, who inhabited the region of modern-day Cuenca to the south of Quito, allied with Huscar. As Atahualpas forces moved south, they punished the Caà ±ari severely, devastating their lands and massacring many of the people. This act of vengeance would come back to haunt the Inca people later, as the Caà ±ari would ally with conquistador Sebastin de Benalczar when he marched on Quito. In a desperate battle outside of Cuzco, Quisquis routed Huscars forces sometime in 1532 and captured Huscar. Atahualpa, delighted, moved south to take possession of his Empire. Death of Huscar In November of 1532, Atahualpa was in the city of Cajamarca celebrating his victory over Huscar when a group of 170 bedraggled foreigners arrived at the city: Spanish conquistadors under Francisco Pizarro. Atahualpa agreed to meet with the Spanish but his men were ambushed in the Cajamarca town square and Atahualpa was captured. This was the beginning of the end of the Inca Empire: with the Emperor in their power, no one dared attack the Spanish. Atahualpa soon realized that the Spanish wanted gold and silver and arranged for a kingly ransom to be paid. Meanwhile, he was allowed to run his Empire from captivity. One of his first orders was the execution of Huscar, who was butchered by his captors at Andamarca, not far from Cajamarca. He ordered the execution when he was told by the Spanish that they wanted to see Huscar. Fearing that his brother would make some sort of deal with the Spanish, Atahualpa ordered his death. Meanwhile, in Cuzco, Quisquis was executing all of the members of Huscars family and any nobles who had supported him. Death of Atahualpa Atahualpa had promised  to fill a large room half full with gold and twice over with silver  in order to secure his release, and in late 1532, messengers spread out to the far corners of the Empire to  order his subjects to send gold and silver.  As precious works of art poured into  Cajamarca, they were melted down and sent to Spain. In July of 1533, Pizarro and his men began hearing rumors that the mighty army of Rumià ±ahui, still back in Quito, had mobilized and was approaching with the goal of liberating Atahualpa. They panicked and executed Atahualpa on July 26, accusing him of treachery. The rumors later proved to be false: Rumià ±ahui was still in Quito. Legacy of the Civil War There is no doubt that the civil war was one of the most crucial factors of the Spanish conquest of the Andes. The Inca Empire was a mighty one, featuring powerful armies, skilled generals, a strong economy and hard-working population. Had Huayna Capac still been in charge, the Spanish would have had a tough time of it. As it was, the Spanish were able to skillfully use the conflict to their advantage. After the death of Atahualpa, the Spanish were able to claim the title of avengers of ill-fated Huscar and march into Cuzco as liberators. The Empire had been sharply divided during the war, and by allying themselves to Huscars faction the Spanish were able to walk into Cuzco and loot whatever had been left behind after Atahualpas ransom had been paid. General Quisquis eventually saw the danger posed by the Spanish and rebelled, but his revolt was put down. Rumià ±ahui bravely defended the north, fighting the invaders every step of the way, but superior Spanish military technology and tactics, along with allies including the Caà ±ari, doomed the resistance from the start. Even years after their deaths, the Spanish were using the Atahualpa-Huscar civil war to their advantage. After the conquest of the Inca, many people back in Spain began wondering what Atahualpa had done to deserve being kidnapped and murdered by the Spanish, and why Pizarro had invaded Peru in the first place. Fortunately for the Spanish, Huscar had been the elder of the brothers, which allowed the Spanish (who practiced primogeniture) to assert that Atahualpa had usurped his brothers throne and was therefore fair game for Spanish who only wanted to set things right and avenge poor Huscar, who no Spaniard ever met. This smear campaign against Atahualpa was led by pro-conquest Spanish writers such as Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa. The rivalry between Atahualpa and Huscar survives to this day. Ask anyone from Quito about it and theyll tell you that Atahualpa was the legitimate one and Huscar the usurper: they tell the story vice versa in Cuzco. In Peru, in the nineteenth century, they christened a mighty new warship Huscar, whereas in Quito you can take in a  fà ºtbol  game at the national stadium: Estadio Olà ­mpico Atahualpa. Sources Hemming, John.  The Conquest of the Inca  London: Pan Books, 2004 (original 1970).Herring, Hubert.  A History of Latin America From the Beginnings to the Present.  New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962.

Systems, Process & Data Modeling Research Paper

Systems, Process & Data Modeling - Research Paper Example The paper tells that the last two decades of the twentieth century proved to be the advent of the Unified Modeling Language. The UML can be narrated as â€Å"a language for specifying, visualizing and constructing the artifacts of software systems, as well as for business modeling.† On lighter note, the UML is a graphical means of depicting the design models with respect to specific environments. Use Case Modeling is a subset of Unified Modeling Language. It can be narrated as a method whereby the requirements of the stakeholders can be incorporated into the system’s design. The functional requirements of an existing or proposed system are described in detail via use case modeling techniques. The process modeling is done in the early stages of system development. User input can be altered at every stage of development in a use case that is developed as a result of the execution of the modeling technique. The subsequent development stages are all based upon the use cases that are generated in the initiation. The components of a use case model are mainly actors and use cases. An Actor is any external interaction with the system. It may be a person or an entity that exchanges data with the system. An actor may also be a user of the system though all users are not necessarily actors. A use case is a series of steps that gets initiated when an actor interacts with the system under consideration. The goal that is achieved by use case modeling is the creation of a conceptual system regarding the observable behavior of the concerned system. This conceptual model is basically aimed at representing the real world scenario within the information system. The model also supports communication between the users and the developers of the system, enables better analytical understanding of the system and proves to be a point of initiation for the designers of the system. (Wand and Weber, 2002) PERFORMING USE CASE MODELING In a use case model a use case is represen ted by an ellipse while the actors interacting with it are symbolized using a stickman symbol. The notations being used for use case modeling are illustrated in the table below: Table 1: Showing grammatical constructs for Use Case Diagram Using the notations mentioned in Table 1 above a use case model can be easily assembled. How it is developed is demonstrated by taking the example of â€Å"Registration in a University.† The points to be considered when registering in a university course may be stated as follows: Are there any pre requisite courses for the course being selected for studying? Have the pre requisite courses been completed by the student attempting the course? Is the student a fee defaulter? Has the student registered in the maximum number of courses that can be registered in a month? The use cases that deal with these queries, resolve them and proceed towards the completion of the use case model are stated as follows: Class Registration Registration for Specia l Classes Prereq Courses not completed Student Billing Student Record These use cases are depicted as ellipses with their respective names stated underneath them. The actors interacting with this specific se case model are the Student, The registration personnel, the instructor and the Bursar’s Office. These actors are depicted by the symbol of a man. Any one of the actors initiates its respective use case. For example, the class registration use case can be initiated by the student or the registration clerk. The use case would first connect with the ‘pre requisite course not completed’ use case and check whether there are any pre requisite courses that need to be completed before the ‘to-be registered course’ or not. If the response is yes then the student’s record requires to be checked whether he has completed the pre requisite

Auditing Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Auditing - Case Study Example altered year to year, these changes would create an inherent risk that Nathans Finance would not be able to meet those requirements and ultimately financial statement would not present the true and fair view. 1. There is a risk that there are no appropriate controls over revenue recording and the revenue of the next year is included in the current year’s figure which ultimately results in 42.5% increase in total sales. 3. There is a big increase in the revenue, but advertisement expense is only $53,445 in 2005 against $313,356 in 2006 (Nathans Finance NZ Limited, 2006). This may reveal control risk because this huge increase in advertisement expense may exposed that there are no related controls. Detection risk is a risk that the audit procedures performed by the auditor will not be able to detect and prevent the material misstatement in the financial statement. Some of the detection risks in Nathan Finance are mentioned below, 1. There is a big increase in the revenue, but advertisement expense is only $53,445 in 2005 against $313,356 in 2006 (Nathans Finance NZ Limited, 2006) auditor may not be able to detect the potentioal oversttement in the revenue. 2. Purchase of new vending machines for $11.32 million. It may either be fictitious or it may be leased asset. There is a greater risk that the auditor is unable to detect any potential fraud of error in this significant transaction. 3. Decrease in salaries and wages in comparison to last year may suggest that the management is concealing the expense to show higher profits, because in normal circumstances salaries expense increases. Audit procedures may fail to detect this potential error or fraud. 4. Increase in intercompany advances from $60.7 million to 79.6 million. This is related parties transaction and the management can create fictitious advance which would be difficult for the auditors to detect. 5. Sharp decrease in long-term finance receivables from $45.1 million to $34.07 million in 2006.

International Search for Distribution Partner Essay

International Search for Distribution Partner - Essay Example As of November 2005 they have 766 stores in the U.S. and 166 in Canada (43 of those Best Buy). On September 22, 2003 they opened their first Global Sourcing Office in Shanghai, China in order to increase their efficiency and improve communication with suppliers. The company, in developing the Asian Market, appointed their Vice-chairman Al Lenzmeier to head up the project. Since 2003 they expanded to include two additional distribution centers in Beijing and Shenzhen. The company recognizes the market potential in China and this spring will open lab stores to rapidly test the Chinese retail market. Store locations will be selected based on area market and competition. They have not yet determined the number of stores to be opened as they employ a "greenfielding strategy, grow by opening stores" ("Our history" 2006). This could be an excellent opportunity for us. The CarreFour Group, established in 1959, is the largest retailer in Europe, the second largest worldwide and the industry leader in nine countries. Their four main store configurations are: 'hypermart', supermarkets, hard discount and convenience stores. They operate a total of 10,378 stores in 29 countries. Their retail sales last year were 88,178 billion euros before tax.

FInancial Outlook on Social Security Pensions Research Paper

FInancial Outlook on Social Security Pensions - Research Paper Example This takes place at the macro level. Personal retirement savings accounts were established into Ireland through in 2002 through the Pensions Act. These accounts are long term individual accounts that have been designed to help people save for their retirement in an elastic manner (Attanasio 3). The significance of security savings especially for those people with no pension provisions exist. With a personal retirement savings accounts, a person can change their employment and continue using the same account. It is also possible to change from one savings account to another at any time without charges. The two main different types of personal retirement savings account are all aimed at improving the financial security of individuals. These two are; standard personal retirement savings accounts and the non-standard savings accounts. The principle difference between the two saving accounts is on the charges. Moreover, there are restrictions on the type of property that the standard savi ngs account can invest in. They only invest in joint funds where the hazard is extended on huge number and diversity of investments. However, the standard savings account meets the requirements of most people. The non-standard savings accounts tender broader investment alternatives. ... The accounting methods used to estimate their liabilities assume that better planning can earn higher investments with reduced risks. It is likely that plan assets could fall short. In such a case, taxpayers are expected to make up for the difference. However, the taxpayer guarantee value is not disclosed. While states recognize underfunded social security pensions, it is evident that the situation is worse than it is demonstrated by their accounting. If proactive steps are not taken therefore, taxpayers will be forced to cover huge shortfalls (Aguila 39). From such an analysis, it is evident that the financial outlook on social security pension practices is inaccurate. This is because the shortfalls exceed explicit state debts. It is, therefore, arguable that pension benefits, contributions, and retirement ages must be transformed. However, this may be difficult until accurate accounting systems are adopted. It is evident that the social security programs are currently experiencing financial problems. There has, therefore, been the question on social security policy on the retirement behavior of incentive programs. The role of private pension programs has been growing over the past few years. It is, there, important to review and monitor their performance in an international framework especially with the 2008 financial market crisis (Aguila 39). Rapid decline in labor participation of men has been a striking phenomenon especially in the second half of the twentieth century. A lot has been documented on causes of this trend amongst older men. Presently, through life-cycle model of saving, individuals get the opportunity to design consumption and saving plans through the assumed perfect information. Statistics, however, proof that many workers in the U.S. lack

Role Of Safeguards In Strengthening Independence Essay

Role Of Safeguards In Strengthening Independence - Essay Example The importance of autonomy of auditors and the inherent risk of not being totally self-determining raises many of the issues where safeguards were suggested in order to minimize the threat to the sovereignty of the auditors. Although auditors cannot be completely liberated from the client, however, there are certain measures, which brings the dependency of the auditors to an acceptable level. Independence of the auditors is compulsory in order to assure that the opinion that the auditor provide is free from biases. Auditors provide reasonable assurance upon the financial statements of the company where the auditor expresses the opinion whether the financial statements are free from material misstatement and all applicable standards were followed (Cai, 1997). The assurance regarding the independence of auditors must be affirmed, though not completely but to an acceptable level (Silvia, 2010), by providing safeguards upon the issues that threaten the auditors’ independence. ... The safeguards provided in order to minimize the threat to the independence of the auditors are categorized differently. The safeguards provided ensure that the threats to the independence of auditors are minimized to the acceptable level. Absolute Prohibition The independence of the auditors is strengthened when there is complete prohibition is provided regarding the financial and non-financial interest of the auditor to the client. When the auditor is completely prohibited from possessing any type of interest in the client the independence increases (Peter, 2004). The framework completely restricts the client and auditor to possess any type of relationship whether business or personal. The restriction is imposed upon activities that are to be carried out between the client and the auditor. Permitting But Restricting the Extent In several cases the framework permits the auditor to continue with the activity with the client but the extent of the activity and relationship with the cli ent is limited.

Effective negotiation skills Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Effective negotiation skills - Essay Example (Lewicki and Hiam, 2006, p. 42) In business situations we very often know when a negotiation situation is likely to happen and this allows us to gather information both on our own position and that of the other party. It is very important to have clear what the goal of the negotiation is. People often forget this, and get trapped into winning the argument for its own sake, without considering whether all the effort is going to bring the desired results in the end. In fact there may be times when winning the argument is not the best outcome: â€Å"There is no value in driving the best deal if it causes resentment and a desire for revenge that will sour business and could cost you more in the future than you could have saved in the short term.† (Steele and Beasor: 1999). It is wise also to consider what the alternatives would be if this proposed deal is not successfully resolved. A company which has many different suppliers, all offering good products at competitive prices will not need to bargain so hard with one particular customer because the fall back position is to go elsewhere. This means that before going in to a negotiation situation we should weigh up how strong our own position is in this respect, and try to figure out how much the other party needs and wants to make this agreement. In the opening phase of a negotiation it is important to try and build a good relationship with the other party and make the discussions pleasant and polite. In personal situations, however, this can be quite difficult at times. In my own personal life, for example, I recall having a very difficult discussion with my parents about going on holiday with my friends. I was in a weak position, because I desperately wanted to go, but relied on my parents for a part of the money, since I was still a teenager with only a part time job which did not pay well. My parents took, in my view, a very hard line and said that I was too young to go on holiday without supervision and t hey refused to give their permission. At the time I got angry and this started a huge family row. I told them that I felt they were old fashioned, out of date, and had fascist rules which were unfair to me. Due to the influence of my sister, who was, and still is, smarter about human relationships, I realized that my parents actually did not want to cause me pain, but were worried about my safety driving south in my friend’s car, and a possible bad influence from a particular boy in my circle of friends. I followed my sister’s advice, apologized to my parents about the outburst, and explained that this was important for me as a step towards independence. My parents clarified their concerns, and I told them, truthfully that the boy they were concerned about was not going on the holiday. They agreed to support my holiday, and I agreed to keep away from drugs and to telephone home every three days. My mistake in this negotiation was in demanding rather than asking, in an aggressive way, and in failing to establish what the reason for my parents’ objections were. I also failed, at first, to understand where my parents were coming from: â€Å"We must start a negotiation thinking about the pictures in the heads of the other party† (Diamond, 2010, p.135). Once I had understood their fears, the facts were clarified and a more respectful tone was adopted, we each put

Role Of Safeguards In Strengthening Independence Essay

Role Of Safeguards In Strengthening Independence - Essay Example The importance of autonomy of auditors and the inherent risk of not being totally self-determining raises many of the issues where safeguards were suggested in order to minimize the threat to the sovereignty of the auditors. Although auditors cannot be completely liberated from the client, however, there are certain measures, which brings the dependency of the auditors to an acceptable level. Independence of the auditors is compulsory in order to assure that the opinion that the auditor provide is free from biases. Auditors provide reasonable assurance upon the financial statements of the company where the auditor expresses the opinion whether the financial statements are free from material misstatement and all applicable standards were followed (Cai, 1997). The assurance regarding the independence of auditors must be affirmed, though not completely but to an acceptable level (Silvia, 2010), by providing safeguards upon the issues that threaten the auditors’ independence. ... The safeguards provided in order to minimize the threat to the independence of the auditors are categorized differently. The safeguards provided ensure that the threats to the independence of auditors are minimized to the acceptable level. Absolute Prohibition The independence of the auditors is strengthened when there is complete prohibition is provided regarding the financial and non-financial interest of the auditor to the client. When the auditor is completely prohibited from possessing any type of interest in the client the independence increases (Peter, 2004). The framework completely restricts the client and auditor to possess any type of relationship whether business or personal. The restriction is imposed upon activities that are to be carried out between the client and the auditor. Permitting But Restricting the Extent In several cases the framework permits the auditor to continue with the activity with the client but the extent of the activity and relationship with the cli ent is limited.

Evaluation of Differential Research Methods Essay Example for Free

Evaluation of Differential Research Methods Essay In this essay we will look at the positive and negative aspects of the group presentation of remit 1. We will also look into the different research methods we took on to gather relevant information that we needed. Then recommendations we want to include for improvement from our verbal feedback alongside with any constraining factors we, as a group encountered. The essay will then look into the use and analysis of theory that we used that assisted us in making our final campaign. Once our group was given the idea of the university application we began to group ideas together as to what will work most effectively. We chose to use the campaign idea of viral marketing. To do this we took on a semantic and semiotic approach, whereby used signified linguistics to identify what we wanted to communicate and how. Semantic is better defined as ‘the study of linguistic development by classifying and examining changes in meaning and form’ [Semantics 2, 1994] our campaign idea was developed around the concept of transferring different meanings, for example in our campaign we developed the idea from the message we wanted to transfer across, which was the ease of use of the application along with the ability to make the video viral. Taking a semantic approach can allow the user to interpret form and meaning for them, the implementation of the meaning is posed but is left entirely to the user to self-interpret. Our campaign did however briefly touch over on semantic advertising, as we aimed the campaign as an viral video aimed at the social networking side of things we implemented the thoughts of just how effective it can be to specific target audiences to advertise on particular mediums. Our campaign idea could of better utilised the semantic concepts by identifying key phrases or words and adapting those words to create alternate meanings. Many semantic campaigns today are internet based, with a high increase of internet cookie tracking data being used by companies to then forward on products to consumers with similar search data. We decided to stay away from this concept as it falls into the category of anonymity and as an academic foundation we felt it more reputable to remain known. Semiotics is better defined as ‘The study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation’ [U, Eco, 1979] in our campaign we used many semiotic concepts and in fact it is arguably what our final idea was based around. In our storyboard campaign we decided to use the cartoon to real like to cartoon to real life effect which we used to indicate different scenarios, for example when the person first starts off he is a real life person standing with the application in his hand representing real life. The user then enters the University College Birmingham application whereby he is taken into another dimension and we see the use of different symbols and signs to recreate a fictional dimension. The use of this was to indicate exciting ways to being able to receive the information you need. In the cartoon storyboards the use of colours that we used were primary colours, which were used to indicate simplicity while portraying the ability to enjoy the application. It is also important to mention the signified and signifier model which we briefly used in the construction of our campaign, using key word associations it quickly gave us access to relevant wording which tied in with the possible campaign ideas. Finally to talk about the last concept that was used in the campaign we chose is rhetoric, better defined as ‘Language designed to have a persuasive or impressive effect on its audience’ [G,Tom Eves, A 1999] in our campaign we opted for the viral video, in hope that this would tap into our target market which were young students. In the campaign with the concepts we used by interacting on social networking sites we intending to create a persuasive advertising campaign that attempted to eliminate any preconceived ideas that university information was complicated and hard to get a hold of. The use of language we used in the campaign was simplistic while informative; we left no vital pieces of information out of the campaign while also making the thought of this information entertaining. The overall effect we intended to make on our target audience was to leave a lasting impressive imprint that the viral video we had created was informative, fun and appealing to our audience. In a highly competitive market it is essential for students to understand exactly what they seek and for it to be easily accessible, by creating the viral campaign with the use of social networking sites it allows the audience to access the information they need directly or through friends. To conclude, with the campaign we ran with and the concepts we took on board to get to the final decision we used a variety of different models, in particular the semiotic model whereby we used a variety of different colours, forms and meanings to portray different emotions to the user to engage them. We then took on board some semantic concepts by allowing the campaign to become a viral video and publishing this online it acted not only as a source of information but in turn an advertisement of the application and university. To recommend what could have changed with the campaign final idea or what could have been done instead to better our chances of the campaign idea being successful there would be a few recommendations. The implication further of semantic concepts could have been implemented in to the campaign idea of using social networking. The application draft idea picked up little criticism other than the presentation of the application and its data. If the project was to be undertaken again the use of rhetoric alongside semantic would be heavily prevalent to tap into the internet advertising market alongside the use of websites which creating platforms to share videos, blogs and articles.

Examining Evidence Of Climate Change Environmental Sciences Essay

Examining Evidence Of Climate Change Environmental Sciences Essay The definition of climate change is the change in global climate over time due to Natural and human influences. The main natural influence is the Greenhouse effect. Some scientists have come to the conclusion that the world is experiencing climate change, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is rising, the polar icecaps are melting and sea levels are rising. Health issues connected to climate change include Water, food and vector borne diseases, Respiratory disease, Solar radiation, Heat waves and flooding. Vector borne diseases such as Malaria and Dengue fever have increased due to climate change since 1975. Malaria is extremely sensitive to climate change, as malaria is common in warmer areas of the planet such as Africa and is sensitive to temperature changes, many studies have come to the conclusion that climate change is responsible for Vector borne disease spreading to cooler areas, the disease used to be rare in cooler areas of the world. Variations in solar radiation are thought to effect climate change by causing the earth to get warmer due to an increase in sunspots. Radiation will be increased due to cooling of the stratosphere which increases the effect of ozone depleting gases, also climate change alters cloud formation which can allow more radiation to the earths surface, and higher temperatures results in people spending more time outside increasing exposure to solar radiation. (IPCC, 2010). Heat waves have led to many deaths particularly in the elderly especially if they suffer from other health problems as well as they cannot cope with changing temperature extremes. Heat waves also cause dehydration from loss of salt and fluid due to sweating which in turn can result in coronary thrombosis due to high blood concentration. Flooding is due to the rise in sea and river levels and more intense rainfall, there are many consequences that come from this which are loss of homes and personal belongings, productivity loss for businesses, effects on tourism, farming, interruption to Gas and electricity supplies connected to electricity loss is disruption to communication ie TV, telephones, radios and the internet. (Architecture.com, 2010). Vector borne diseases such as Malaria and Dengue fever have increased due to climate change since 1975. Malaria is extremely sensitive to climate change and warmer temperatures support disease transmission resulting in a spread of the disease to cooler areas. Warming Temperature coupled with air pollution can lead to increased chances of respiratory disease such as COPD, asthma and bronchitis. There is a lot of evidence to suggest climate change is having an impact on aeroallergens, mould spores and pollen activity which is directly linked to asthma. The greenhouse effect occurs when gases in the atmosphere mainly carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane trap energy from the sun and keeps the planet at a range of temperatures to sustain Human life, without this effect the earth would be 60F colder. Manmade greenhouse effect happens when fossil fuels are burnt greenhouse gases escape into the atmosphere and enhance the natural effects. Burning fossil fuels also increases the concentration of carbon dioxide and many scientists believe this is responsible for global warming. (Weatherquestions.com, 2010) Scientists have predicted that rising sea levels due to melting ice sheets will push up sea levels by a metre by 2100. This occurrence happens because of thermal expansion, in simple terms as sea water warms its density decreases and volume increases, the ice melts quicker than the snowfall is being replaced resulting in rising sea levels. The impact of this is flooding in low lying coastal areas affecting 10% of the worlds population. Projections of global sea level rise by the IPCC in 2001 ranged from 9 to 88 cm by 2100. (Science Daily, 2009) A Large percentage of scientists however have come to the conclusion that global warming does not exist, they believe that there is not enough evidence to conclude that CO2 realised into the atmosphere by man is causing the so called greenhouse effect 17,000 scientists have signed a petition to this affect. (Captitalism Magazine, 2001). At the UN Climate summit in Copenhagen governments are attempting to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and stop human induced climate change with a new global agreement, the scientists who disagree have come up with ten reasons why we are not experiencing climate change. Reliable sources of temperature data show no global warming trend, as all global warming predictions are done using a computer model not historical data. It has been found by instruments that the earth is warming up but the instruments do not show true values as the readings are taken in urban areas and because of the urban heat island effect where an urban area is warmer than the surrounding rural areas the readings will not be correct. And some areas of the world dont even have access to instruments so overall the readings are subject to large errors. Since 1998 records show from using satellite predictions there no significant warming. The earth was found to be warmer in the recent past, where temperatures in Europe were higher than they are now, and the arctic was warmer in 1930 than it is today. Computer models have been found to be unreliable because they cannot model all the variables that can affect the weather such variables being, influence of clouds, distribution of water vapour and warm seawaters impact on ice shelves. Computer models predict atmospheric behaviour but the measurements are showing the opposite so the computer models are wrong or the measurements are somehow incorrect. The sun is now thought to be responsible for climate change due to its changing output and solar wind. CO2 rises that presumably occur before temperature rises is believed to be not the case in fact the CO2 rise happens after the temperature change suggesting that warmer temperature increases the gas escape from the oceans. The use of satellites to establish weather trends was only started in the 1970s so measurements where not very accurate before that time, a lot of effects such as Hurricanes and the extent of arctic ice would therefore be observed only when they could be seen. The use of satellites therefore is so short that any claims of significant increase in Hurricanes getting stronger or arctic ice sheets reducing cannot really be justified. Water vapour is the main natural greenhouse gas that keeps the earths surface warm it is responsible for 98% of all warming so any rise in CO2 or methane would have a relatively small impact, and distribution of water vapour can occur in many different ways so its rise does not necessarily increase warming. In conclusion some groups of scientists are sceptical about climate change and have some very plausible arguments against it but each and every argument can be answered by the scientists who believe it is occurring, so therefore it may come down to personal opinion until a time when there is concrete evidence for or against climate change. (BBC News, 2009). As reliable data collection methods are relatively new accurate judgements are difficult to make on data over 30 years old.